Second Language Acquisition Project: PAPER SLA.doc

---

 

 

 

 

---

 

ANGUAGE is one of the most important pillars of the human intellect. It is the principal means by which individuals formulate thoughts and convey meanings with the purpose of Communication. Analysing the world, solving problems, understanding and reasoning are important aspects of the role of language in human life. For over a century, scientists have tried to understand how the brain achieves the function of language, how it learns, stores and processes language. Hence, the task of understanding how the brain functions in terms of language is difficult, since there are no animals with a symbol system as rich as language. Therefore, most of the studies of language function and the brain are based upon studies on the effects of language of neurological desease in human beings.

 

    

     Language is brain stuff, no tongue, lips, ear or hand stuff. The language organ lies in the human mind, more specifically, in certain areas of the left hemisphere. For every functional ability, different parts of the HUMAN BRAIN specialize in language. The brain consists of two roughly identical halves – the left and the right hemispheres. There are small differences in the sizes of some regions in the two hemispheres that may form the basis for the first major brain specialization of Language: “Lateralization of the Language to the left Hemisphere”. In this brain specialization, only a small part of the cortex is responsible or language processing and appears to be responsible for sign language as well as spoken language. Written language, on the other side, probably involves areas nearer the visual cortex. 

 

 

     It is important to highlight that the human brain posseses what is known as “Contralateral Neural Control”, that is to say that the Right Hemisphere controls the left side of the human body while the Left Hemisphere controlsthe right side of the huan body. The RIGHT H controls matters of 3D spatial stuff, the awareness of position in space in all directions and artistic and musical abilities. The LEFT H controls patterns that progress step-by-step in a single dimension, such as our sense of time, progression and reasoning. We then may wonder why language faculty is localized in the Left Hemisphere and not the right? The reason is that “language” is a linear process: sounds ans words are uttered one after the other in a definite progression not in multiple directions simultaneously.

 

   

     To summarize, Human Beings are born with the innate capacity to acquire the system of communication that we know as LANGUAGE, such language instinct with which we are born is what Noam Chomsky referred to as LANGUAGE ACQUISITION DEVICE. Children seem to make use of both hemispheres to acquire language. Hence, it is possible to say that children are capable of acquiring language in 3D while adults do it in 2D.

 

The brain and the Universe:

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

   

     The theory of Information Processing was proposed by George A. Miller. The Information Processing theory comprises principles of the Learning Theory by Robert Gagné, in which the stages or internal processes that take place in information processing are presented.  This model has become dominant partly because of the insights the model gives in describing and explaining cognitive (mental) processes, such as thinking and problem solving.

    

     Like a computer, the human mind takes information, organises it, stores it for later use and then retrieves it when necessary. In human beings, information enters through the ears, the eyes or another sensory organ. Then, this information is processed in a device called Working Memory where we think about and process the entered data. To store the information already processed in the Working Memory, the human brain stores information in the Long Term Memory. Having processed the information, individuals need to do something with such information which is brought to the outside world in the forms of talking, walking, smiling, or shaking hands. Simply put – action.

 

     Therefore, according to the Information Processing theory, we can find three types of memory:

 

·        Sensory registers. The part of the memory that receives all the information a person senses.

 

      ·        Short-term memory (STM). Also known as working memory, the part of memory where new information is

          held temporarily until it is either lost or placed into long-term memory.

·        Long-term memory (LTM). The part of memory which has an unlimited capacity and can hold information indefinitely.

 

     For encoding information, firstly, individuals must make sure that the information received is meaningful and that the activation of prior knowledge occurs. Among the strategies for succesful encoding of information we find: chunking, rehearsal, imagery, mnemonics, schema activation, and level of processing. Once information is endoded, individuals retrieve it or memorize it (temporarily). Retrieval might be affected by several factors such as the kind of information the person gets, the sructure of such material and the continued exposure to the content. The long-term memory stores the information processed and retrieved, and it stores theory and practice.

 

     The Information Processing theory aims at activiating mental processses which will alow the learner to acquire knowledge in a meaningful way. People are active learners who can control and manipulate information and develop strategies to deal with particular situations. This approach is comfortable for adult learners and vocational educators, as are the concepts of self-directed learning and lifelong learning.

 

 

 

 Information Processing on youtube.com:

 

---

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  

   Fossilization, refers to the often-observed loss of progress in the acquisition of a second language (L2), following a period where learning occurred.

 

     The number of second language learners who are considered to develop nativelike fluency in an L2 is generally small. At some point in the learner's path of development, no further learning appears possible, with their performance apparently incapable of further exposure to the L2 and explicit correction of errors. Because the L2 now appears 'set in stone', the term fossilization was used to describe this point.

 

     There is no particular level that can be identified at which learners appear to fossilize, though it is more often observed in intermediate proficiency levels and above. These errors seem to resist correction and have not disappeared despite many years in an English-language community.

 

     Whether fossilization is inevitable, very likely or avoidable has long been discussed in SLA. While some scholars have argued that nativelike fluency in an L2 is not possible beyond a certain age (the critical period hypothesis), others argue that fossilization is the result of a learning environment that is far from ideal, or a mind that has reached subconscious conclusions that are difficult to change, meaning that a nativelike level of ultimate attainment is possible in the right conditions.The general trend has been for the estimated proportion of learners able to master an L2 in such a way as to be indistinguishable from a native speaker to have increased over the years.

 

 

 

 

 

 

    

 

     Acquisition of a second language may be affected due to the influence of many fators that can either hinder or encourage the acquisition of that second language. Among these factors, the most influential ones are Motivation, Personality and Anxiety.

 

 

Motivation

 

 

 

     A person's motivation behind learning a second language (L2) as well as the views the learner holds regarding the L2-speaking community both play an important role in speed of SLA and degree of proficiency achieved.

     Motivation can be divided in two ways: integrative and instrumental. Integrative motivation is found in language learners whose desire to learn aims at becoming part of the L2-speaking community. Additionally, learners with integrative motivation, want more contact with the target language, or are genuinely interested in it. Conversely, instrumental motivation is found in learners who see language as a means to obtaining some reward (good grades, employment, a diploma or for mere appreciation). Integrative motivation is more helpful in SLA and proficiency because there is more desire for interaction with the community and the language that helps acquisition. Those students with mainly instrumental motivation are less likely to seek out situations where there language skills will be needed and will be improved, like social occasions in the L2 community, readings in the L2, or friends in the L2 community.

      Krashen claims that learners with high motivation, self-confidence, a good self-image, and a low level of anxiety are better equipped for success in second language acquisition. Low motivation, low self-esteem, and debilitating anxiety can combine to 'raise' the affective filter and form a 'mental block' that prevents comprehensible input from being used for acquisition. In other words, when the filter is 'up' it impedes language acquisition. (Krashen, 1985)

 

 

Motivation involves 4 aspects:

 

1. A Goal

    

2. An Effort

    

3. A Desire to attain the goal
4. Favorable Attitude toward the activity in question.

 

 

Sometimes a distinction is made between positive and negative motivation.

 

 Positive motivation is a response which includes enjoyment and optimism about the tasks that you are involved in.

Negative motivation involves undertaking tasks for fear that there should be undesirable outcomes, eg. failing a subject, if tasks are not completed.

 

 

 

Personality

 

 

 

     Personality can also affect SLA. In combination with environment, it can act to inhibit learners or to encourage increase opportunity. Introversion has the greatest chance of negatively affecting SLA. Students that are afraid of embarrassing themselves by speaking incorrectly or by not being able to speak at all, try to avoid opportunities that would help improve their learning. If teachers correct mistakes and even embarrass shy students, it may isolate students even more. Instead, repeating back the corrected statement allows feedback without damaging student's ego. For example, if Marcia says "Yesterday I go to the store with my madre," the teacher would respond, "You went to the store with your mother yesterday?" She has effectively provided corrected input while also continuing the conversation. If a student shuts down after an outright correction then opportunity for more input and practice has been lost.

     All of these external and internal characteristics affect the way in which language is acquired by the brain. Increased input, lowered anxiety, strong integrative motivation and positive environments can help processes of language acquisition progress. It is an interesting overlap between the physical processes of the brain and the more mental processes of the mind. While language acquisition is ultimately completed and stored in the brain, emotional and environmental factors greatly affect the process by which it is acquired.

 

Anxiety, introversion and extraversion

 

     Anxiety also plays a major role in the success or failure of learning a new language. Low levels are associated with paths of ease and clarity. High levels can cause confusion. The more anxiety one develops, the harder it will be to learn the language.

    Adults and adolescents are usually too fearful of failing and looking or sounding foolish in front of others. This concern often blocks optimal performance that could be achieved if one were in a completely relaxed state of mind. A lot of this anxiety arises from feelings of personal inferiority and self-confidence issues. Learning a new language isn’t an effortless hobby, and almost anyone, to some degree, wishes to hide and protect his fragile ego fromthe putside world. But if one is self-conscious about making mistakes and silly slip-ups, one can ask for clarification if something is not understood. This sort of anxity obviously impedes a person’s progression.

     Research has found a type of anxiety that is related to language learning situations, and is not connected with general (‘trait’) anxiety. This type of anxiety is associated with ‘deficits in listening comprehension, impaired vocabulary learning, reduced word production, low scores on tests, low grades in language courses or a combination of these factors’ (Gardner, Tremblay & Masgoret on Hurd).

 

     Also, anxiety is said to be strongly associated with low self-confidence and with introversion. Introvert learners tend to have higher anxiety levels than extrovert ones and take longer to retrieve information. However, they are more accurate and show greater cognitive control. Extrovert students, on the other hand, worry less about accuracy and have a tendency to take risks with their language, in ordert o achieve communicative competence.

 

     For some independent language learners, anxiety may not be an issue. They can work in private, and have more choices, including whether to mix with other learners or not, However, the same factors which affect motivation may be anxiety-producing for some, particularly those prone to negative self-appraisal.

 

 

 

Krashen's Model of Second Language Acquisition:

                              krashen2.ppt

 

 

 

Contrastive Analysis & Language Transfer:

 

 

    contrastive A.ppt 

 

 

More information on the theroies of Second Language Acquisition: summaries 2.doc